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Painted Turtle - Chrysemys picta

Image Copyright and Usage Information
Native Species

Global Rank: G5
State Rank: S5
(see State Rank Reason below)


Agency Status
USFWS:
USFS:
BLM:


 

External Links

State Rank Reason (see State Rank above)
Species is apparently secure and not at risk of extirpation or facing significant threats in all or most of its range.
  • Details on Status Ranking and Review
    Painted Turtle (Chrysemys picta) Conservation Status Review
    Review Date = 05/03/2018
    Range Extent

    ScoreG - 200,000-2,500,000 km squared (about 80,000-1,000,000 square miles)

    Comment363,978 square Kilometers from Natural Heritage Program range maps

    Long-term Trend

    ScoreE - Relatively Stable (±25% change)

    CommentHabitat is likely stable within +/- 25% since European settlement, the increasing in stock ponds may have increased the amount of habitat for this species

    Short-term Trend

    ScoreE - Stable. Population, range, area occupied, and/or number or condition of occurrences unchanged or remaining within ±10% fluctuation

    CommentThis species continues to be found regularly during surveys of lentic sites

    Threats

    ScoreH - Unthreatened. Threats if any, when considered in comparison with natural fluctuation and change, are minimal or very localized, not leading to significant loss or degradation of populations or area even over a few decades’ time. (Severity, scope, and/or immediacy of threat considered Insignificant.)

    CommentNo operational threats in the next 15-20 years identified

    Intrinsic Vulnerability

    ScoreB - Moderately Vulnerable. Species exhibits moderate age of maturity, frequency of reproduction, and/or fecundity such that populations generally tend to recover from decreases in abundance over a period of several years (on the order of 5-20 years or 2-5 generations); or species has moderate dispersal capability such that extirpated populations generally become reestablished through natural recolonization (unaided by humans).

    CommentModerately Vulnerable. Species exhibits moderate age of maturity, frequency of reproduction, and/or fecundity such that populations generally tend to recover from decreases in abundance within 5-20 years or 2-5 generations. Species has good dispersal ca

    Environmental Specificity

    ScoreD - Broad. Generalist. Broad-scale or diverse (general) habitat(s) or abiotic and/or biotic factors are used or required by the species, with all key requirements common in the generalized range of the species in the area of interest. If the preferred food(s) or breeding/nonbreeding microhabitat(s) become unavailable, the species switches to an alternative with no resulting decline in numbers of individuals or number of breeding attempts.

    CommentFound across diverse lentic and lotic waterbodies across most of the state

    Raw Conservation Status Score

    Score 3.5 + 0 (geographic distribution) + 0.5 (environmental specificity) + 0 (short-term trend) + 1 (threats) = 5

 
General Description
EGGS:
Eggs of the Painted Turtle (Chrysemys picta) are white, smooth, and oval. They are approximately 31 mm (1.2 in) long. Initially flexible, the shell gradually becomes firmer as water is absorbed (Ernst et al. 1994, Werner et al. 2004). Clutch size can range from 6-21 leathery eggs (Ernst et al. 1994, Russell and Bauer 2000). In southern Canada, clutch size is 20 and in Wisconsin and Minnesota, clutch size was documented as 10 (Christiansen and Moll 1973). In Wisconsin, 50% of females laid two clutches and nested from June to mid-July. Eggs may overwinter (Ernst 1972).

HATCHLINGS:
Hatchlings have a keeled carapace and vivid orange plastron (Hammerson 1999).

JUVENILES AND ADULTS:
Painted Turtles are named for their highly decorative yellow or reddish orange markings on its carapace and yellow markings on its legs, tail, and head. The plastron (underside) is a brilliant yellow or reddish orange with a large olive, loosely symmetrical blotch in the center, while the carapace (top) is mainly olive to black with more distinct yellow or reddish orange markings along its outer edge. Striking yellow lines along the head and neck, and a red spot behind the eye are distinctive for this species. Yellow markings on the fore and hind legs and tail are also present, but less obvious than those on the head. Brighter than adults, juveniles are otherwise similar in coloration. Adult females are larger than males; carapace length can vary from 8-18 cm (3.2 to 7.1 inches) (Werner et al. 2004). Mature males have a flat plastron, long forefeet claws, and rear vent located beyond the edge of the carapace, while the claws on the forefeet of the female are relatively short with the vent located at or inside the rear edge of the carapace (Hammerson 1999). Juveniles are distinguishable by a deep crease in the abdominal plastron shields (Hammerson 1999).

Diagnostic Characteristics
Lacking the distinct bright coloration, it is unlikely other turtle species in the state would be confused with the Painted Turtle. The Spiny Softshell (Apalone spinifera) is smooth and creamy light brown in coloration with a relatively pointed head and flat pancake-like appearance. The Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) has a dark brown, grey, or black carapace without contrasting coloration patterns anywhere on the shell or body. The Spiny Softshell is found in the central and eastern portions of the state, along the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers and their main tributaries, while the Snapping Turtle is limited to the central and southern portions of eastern Montana (Werner et al. 2004) with non-native populations located west of the Continental Divide (MTNHP POD 2022).

Species Range
Montana Range Range Descriptions

Native

Western Hemisphere Range

 


Range Comments
The Western Painted Turtle (Chrysemys picta belli) in Montana is one of four subspecies of C. picta whose range extends across much of North America and southern Canada. This subspecies is found in the western U.S. and Canadian provinces. In Montana, the Painted Turtle is found throughout the state at lower elevations, with only a few counties in the central portion of the state lacking documented observations (Werner et al. 2004). The Eastern Painted Turtle (C. p. picta) is generally found in southeastern Canada, the northeastern U.S. and into southeastern U.S.; the Midland Painted Turtle (C. p. marginata) is documented in a few mid-western states. The Southern Painted Turtle (C. p. dorsalis) is generally located in the southcentral and southeastern U.S. states (NatureServe 2006). Chrysemys dorsalis (C. p. dorsalis) has been recognized as a distinct species from C. picta by Starkey et al. (2003) based upon molecular data. Disagreements on this point because of apparent intergrades in western Kentucky, southern Illinois, and southeastern Missouri leave the debate open if C. dorsalis is indeed conspecific with C. picta (NatureServe 2006).

Maximum elevation: 1,993 m (6,539 ft) Duck Creek Bay of Hebgen Reservoir in Gallatin County (Clint Sestrich, Adam Kehoe, and Kyle Salzman, MTNHP POD 2022).

Observations in Montana Natural Heritage Program Database
Number of Observations: 2683

(Click on the following maps and charts to see full sized version) Map Help and Descriptions
Relative Density

Recency

 

(Observations spanning multiple months or years are excluded from time charts)



Habitat
An animal of aquatic environments, the Painted Turtle prefers slow-moving shallow waterways (streams, marshes, ponds, lakes, and creeks) with soft mud bottoms and aquatic vegetation. They have been documented in glacial lakes (Franz 1971); but not found in oligotropic mountain lakes above 1,025 m (3363 ft) in Mission Mountains (Brunson and Demaree 1951). Partially submerged logs and rocks for basking are desirable habitat features. This turtle species may colonize areas only seasonally wet but must return to permanent waters for winter hibernation. Behaviorally, juveniles and hatchlings may differ from mature individuals in habitat use. For example, in Michigan, Congdon et al. (1992) found that the hatchlings and juveniles were found in more shallow areas of marsh habitat. This behavior could result from greater food resources available or an attempt to avoid the larger predators present in deeper water (Hammerson 1999). Painted Turtles hibernate in mud at the bottom from early October to mid- or late April. Nests are placed in terrestrial habitats and may range up to 600 meters from water, where the eggs are left to incubate on their own (Ernst et al. 1994, Hammerson 1999)). In southern Canada, nest have been found on south-facing grassy slopes (MacCracken et al. 1983). In small marsh systems, the home range size may be very small (e.g., average of 1.2 ha in Michigan) (Rowe 2003), whereas in rivers, individual home range sizes are generally much larger (e.g., 7-26 km or 4.3-16.2 mi) (MacCulloch and Secoy 1983, NatureServe 2006).

Ecological Systems Associated with this Species
  • Details on Creation and Suggested Uses and Limitations
    How Associations Were Made
    We associated the use and habitat quality (common or occasional) of each of the 82 ecological systems mapped in Montana for vertebrate animal species that regularly breed, overwinter, or migrate through the state by:
    1. Using personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding, overwintering, or migratory habitat requirements of each species (Dobkin 1992, Hart et al. 1998, Hutto and Young 1999, Maxell 2000, Foresman 2012, Adams 2003, and Werner et al. 2004);
    2. Evaluating structural characteristics and distribution of each ecological system relative to the species' range and habitat requirements;
    3. Examining the observation records for each species in the state-wide point observation database associated with each ecological system;
    4. Calculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of "observations versus availability of habitat".
    Species that breed in Montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use, species that only overwinter in Montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use, and species that only migrate through Montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use.  In general, species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system.  However, species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system, even if point observations were associated with that system.  Common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature.  The percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association.  If you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems, please contact the Montana Natural Heritage Program's Senior Zoologist.

    Suggested Uses and Limitations
    Species associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape-level planning.  These potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species (this information can be requested at: mtnhp.org/requests) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists.  Users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales.  Land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade.  Thus, particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas (e.g., evaluations of public land survey sections).  Finally, although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range, portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species' known geographic range.

    Literature Cited
    • Adams, R.A.  2003.  Bats of the Rocky Mountain West; natural history, ecology, and conservation.  Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado.  289 p.
    • Dobkin, D. S.  1992.  Neotropical migrant land birds in the Northern Rockies and Great Plains. USDA Forest Service, Northern Region. Publication No. R1-93-34.  Missoula, MT.
    • Foresman, K.R.  2012.  Mammals of Montana.  Second edition.  Mountain Press Publishing, Missoula, Montana.  429 pp.
    • Hart, M.M., W.A. Williams, P.C. Thornton, K.P. McLaughlin, C.M. Tobalske, B.A. Maxell, D.P. Hendricks, C.R. Peterson, and R.L. Redmond. 1998.  Montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates.  Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, MT.  1302 p.
    • Hutto, R.L. and J.S. Young.  1999.  Habitat relationships of landbirds in the Northern Region, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station RMRS-GTR-32.  72 p.
    • Maxell, B.A.  2000.  Management of Montana's amphibians: a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification, distribution, taxonomy, habitat use, natural history, and the status and conservation of individual species.  Report to U.S. Forest Service Region 1.  Missoula, MT: Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana.  161 p.
    • Werner, J.K., B.A. Maxell, P. Hendricks, and D. Flath.  2004.  Amphibians and reptiles of Montana.  Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing Company. 262 p.

Food Habits
Ease of capture and size are major influences on what prey is taken. Food quality (animal vs. plant) and quantity may influence reproductive potential (MacCracken et al. 1983). Plant material was a significant food item (21 to 61%) in some Painted Turtles that had stopped growing. In addition to living and dead plants, Painted Turtles may consume a wide variety of living or dead organisms. In southern Saskatchewan, Painted Turtles preferred animal food (over 87% by volume) over abundant vegetation. Food interests include worms, leeches, insect larvae, pupae, and adults, as well as beetles, damselflies, dragonflies, water striders, water mites, spiders, mayflies, springtails, mosquitoes, crustaceans, snails, clams, frogs, and fish (Ernst et al. 1994, Hammerson 1999).

Ecology
Most nesting occurs during the afternoon hours, with a smaller proportion of nests initiated in the morning (Ernst et al. 1994). Nesting may occur early or late into the summer. Nests that hatch later in the breeding season may exhibit delayed emergence, e.g., the young overwinter in the nest. Even though Brettenbach et al. (1984) found greater survivorship of nests in Michigan if covered by a beneficial layer of snow, substantial mortality of overwintering hatchlings can occur (Nagle et al. 2000). Nest mortality (resulting from predation) can be high, especially for those nests placed closer, rather than farther, from a water source (Christens and Bider 1987). In Christens and Bider’s (1987) study, hatchlings overwintering in the nest survived early predation, suggesting that open nests may trigger olfactory clues and make early predation more likely.

Adult mortality can occur for individuals overwintering in areas prone to both drought and widely ranging winter temperatures. Christiansen and Bickham (1989) discovered more than 100 painted turtles frozen to death when the pond in which they were hibernating had frozen to the bottom. A 1995 mortality study (Fowle 1996) reported most Painted Turtles found dead on road occurred from late May to mid-July and consisted of 43% adult males, 26% adult females, and 31% of unknown sex, including juveniles. Densities of adult Painted Turtles were positively correlated with pond distance from the highway, and proportionally more juveniles and fewer adults were found at ponds closest to the highway, implying that roadkill mortality may be killing proportionally more adults (Fowle 1996).

Reproductive Characteristics
Sexual maturity appears more a consequence of size in males. Maturity occurs when plastron lengths are 70-95 mm (2.76-3.74 in), rather than age, and enhanced growth can shorten the average age of maturity of four years to two (Ernst et al. 1994). Females generally mature at 6-10 years of age at which time their plastron length ranges from 97-128 mm (3.8-5.1 in) (Ernst et al. 1994). Painted Turtles become active in late March or early April and may be observed basking on sun exposed banks, rocks, or logs in ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and streams. Nesting generally occurs from May until mid-July, with most nesting activity in June and early July. Christens and Bider (1987) found a consistent correlation between the mean temperature of the previous year for the current year’s nest initiation date for nests in Quebec, Canada. The flask-shaped nests are dug with the hind feet into rain-soaked soil, or soil sometimes softened with bladder water during digging (Ernst et al. 1994). Nests are dug into sandy, loamy, or other friable soil (Russell and Bauer 2000). Nest digging and egg laying can take up to four hours (Ernst et al. 1994), after which the eggs are covered over with soil. Poor weather conditions, such as extreme heat or drought can delay nesting (Lindeman 1989, Ernst et al. 1994).

Nest placement and the associated microsite characteristics are important as the sex of the incubating eggs is determined by temperature (cooler temperatures produce males, warmer produce females). While females may lay up to three clutches of eggs in one breeding season, Iverson and Smith (1993) reported an unusual 4 clutches for two females. Tinkle et al. (1981) estimated that 30-50% of females may not reproduce every year. Egg size and clutch size increase with female body size (Hammerson 1999).

A 1995 study from the Mission Valley in Montana (Fowle 1996) reported gravid females ranging from 7 to 17 in age, with smallest gravid female plastron lengths/widths of 166 and 82 mm (6.5 and 3.2 in) for 11- and 9-year old, respectively. The youngest males with secondary sex characteristics were 2 years old, with minimum plastron lengths/widths of 33 and 49 mm (1.3 and 1.9) for 4- and 3-year old, respectively (Fowle 1996).

Management
The following was taken from the Status and Conservation section for the Painted Turtle account in Maxell et al. 2009.

The Painted Turtle is the most abundant turtle species in Montana; both the Spiny Softshell and Snapping Turtle have much smaller ranges, fewer recorded observations, and are more likely to be collected for harvest (Maxell and Hokit 1999, Werner et al. 2004). At the time when the comprehensive summaries of amphibians and reptiles in Montana (Maxell et al. 2003, Werner et al. 2004) were published, the Painted Turtle was documented in 41 counties, and broadly distributed across both the western and eastern portions of the state. Counties absent of records are generally located in the central portion of the state. State records are comprised of 392 observations in 40 counties, with 60 museum voucher records from 19 counties. The distribution of this species reflects its relative abundance compared to the two other turtle species in Montana. Specific state status information on the Painted Turtle is not available for Montana. Global trends over the short term are identified as stable, and relatively stable over the long term (NatureServe 2006).

Studies identifying or addressing specific risk factors for Chrysemys picta in Montana are lacking; however, documented studies and other issues pertaining to their conservation include the following: (1) During the breeding season, females are quite sensitive to disturbance while on nesting forays; human activity (e.g., fishing) can disrupt nesting activity even from a distance (Hammerson 1999). (2) Artificially high mammalian predator numbers resulting from human augmented food resources can result in lower abundance of local turtle populations. While the Raccoon (Procyon lotor) is the most detrimental native predator in all life stages of this turtle species (Ross 1988, Ernst et al. 1994), other native predators of Painted Turtle nests include the Thirteen-lined Ground Squirrel (Ictidomys tridecemlineatus), Chipmunk (Neotamias), Squirrel (Sciurus), Striped Skunk (Mephitis mephitis), American Badger (Taxidea taxus), Coyote (Canis latrans), Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), Common Raven (Corvus corax), Plains Garter Snake (Thamnophis radix), and other snakes (Coluber). Hatchlings and small juveniles may fall prey to Giant Water Bugs (Belostomatidae), Hammerson 1999). Young Painted Turtles are under threat of predation by Muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus), American Mink (Neogale vison), Raccoon, Snapping Turtles (Chelydra serpentina), snakes (Coluber), American Bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus), large fish (Micropterus, Ictalurus), herons (Ardea), and Giant Water Bugs (Hemiptera) (Ernst et al. 1994, Maxell and Hokit 1999). In addition to Raccoons, adult Painted Turtles may be preyed upon by Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), Osprey (Pandion haliaetus), and hawks. (3) Fowle’s (1996) mortality study in Montana reported most Painted Turtles found dead on the road occurring from late May to mid-July consisted of 43% adult males, 26% adult females, and 31% of unknown sex, including juveniles. Densities of adult turtles were positively correlated with pond distance from the highway, and proportionally more juveniles and fewer adults were found at ponds closest to the highway, implying that roadkill mortality may be killing proportionally more adults (Fowle 1996). (4) Ernst (1999) notes that, notwithstanding all of the potential wild predators, the greatest source of mortality for Painted Turtles is probably human caused: road kills, habitat destruction, pet trade, indiscriminate shooting and pesticide poisoning.


References
  • Literature Cited AboveLegend:   View Online Publication
    • Brettenbach, G.L., J.D. Congdon, and R.C. Van Loben Sels. 1984. Winter temperatures of Chrysemys picta nests in Michigan: effects on hatchling survival. Herpetologica 40(1): 76-81.
    • Brunson, R.B. and H.A. Demaree, Jr. 1951. The herpetology of the Mission Mountains, Montana. Copeia (4):306-308.
    • Christens, E. and J.P. Bider. 1987. Nesting activity and hatching success of the painted turtle (Chrysemys picta marginata) in southwestern Quebec. Herpetologica 43(1): 55-65.
    • Christiansen, J.L. and E.O. Moll. 1973. Latitudinal reproductive variation within a single subspecies of painted turtle, Chrysemys picta bellii. Herpetologica 29(2):152-163.
    • Christiansen, J.L. and J.W. Bickham. 1989. Possible historic effects of pond drying and winterkill on the behavior of Kinosternon flavescens and Chrysemys picta. Journal of Herpetology 23(1): 91-94.
    • Congdon, J.D., S.W. Gotte, S.W., and R.W. Mcdiarmid. 1992. Ontogenetic changes in habitat use by juvenile turtles, Chelydra serpentina and Chrysemys picta. Canadian Field Naturalist 106(2): 241-248.
    • Ernst, C. H., R. W. Barbour, and J. E. Lovich. 1994. Turtles of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C. 578 p.
    • Ernst, C.H. 1972. Temperature-activity relationship in the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta. Copeia 1972(2): 217-222.
    • Fowle S.C. 1996. Effects of roadkill mortality on the western painted turtle (Chrysemys picta bellii) in the Mission Valley, western Montana. pp. 205-223. In: Evink G., D. Ziegler, P. Garrett, and J. Berry (eds). Highways and movement of wildlife: improving habitat connections and wildlife passageways across highway corridors. Proceedings of the Florida Department of Transportation/Federal Highway Administration Transportation-Related Wildlife Mortality Seminar. April 30-May 2, 1996. Orlando, Florida.
    • Franz, R. 1971. Notes on the distribution and ecology of the herpetofauna of northwestern Montana. Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society 7: 1-10.
    • Hammerson, G.A. 1999. Amphibians and reptiles in Colorado. University Press of Colorado & Colorado Division of Wildlife. Denver, CO. 484 p.
    • Iverson, J.B. and G.R. Smith. 1993. Reproductive ecology of the painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) in the Nebraska Sandhills and across its range. Copeia 1993(1): 1-21.
    • Lindeman, P.V. 1989. Chrysemys picta belli (western painted turtle). Egg retention. Herpetological Review 20(3): 69.
    • MacCracken, J.G., L.E. Alexander, and D.W. Uresk. 1983. An important lichen of southeastern Montana rangelands. Journal of Range Management 36(1):35-37.
    • Maxell, B.A. and D.G. Hokit. 1999. Amphibians and reptiles. Pages 2.1– 2.30 In G. Joslin and H. Youmans, committee chairs. Effects of recreation on Rocky Mountain wildlife: a compendium of the current state of understanding in Montana. Committee on Effects of Recreation on Wildlife, Montana Chapter of the Wildlife Society.
    • Maxell, B.A., J.K. Werner, P. Hendricks, and D.L. Flath. 2003. Herpetology in Montana: a history, status summary, checklists, dichotomous keys, accounts for native, potentially native, and exotic species, and indexed bibliography. Society for Northwestern Vertebrate Biology, Northwest Fauna Number 5. Olympia, WA. 135 p.
    • Maxell, B.A., P. Hendricks, M.T. Gates, and S. Lenard. 2009. Montana amphibian and reptile status assessment, literature review, and conservation plan, June 2009. Montana Natural Heritage Program. Helena, MT. 643 p.
    • Nagle, R.D., O.M. Kinney, J.D. Congdon, and C.W. Beck. 2000. Winter survivorship of hatching painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) in Michigan. Canadian Journal of Zoology 78(2): 226-233.
    • Ross, D.A. 1988. Chrysemys picta (painted turtle). Predation. Herpetological Review 19(4): 85-87, illustr.
    • Rowe, J.W. 2003. Activity and movements of midland painted turtles (Chrysemys picta marginata) living in a small marsh system on Beaver Island, Michigan. Journal of Herpetology 37: 342-353.
    • Russell, A. P. and A. M. Bauer. 2000. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Alberta: A field guide and primer of boreal herpetology. University of Calgary Press, Toronto, Ontario. 279 p.
    • Starkey, D. E., H. B. Shaffer, R. L. Burke, M.R.J. Forstner, J. B. Iverson, F. J. Janzen, A.G.J. Rhodin, and G. R. Ultsch. 2003. Molecular systematics, phylogeography, and the effects of Pleistocene glaciation in the painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) complex. Evolution 57(1): 119-128.
    • Tinkle, D.W., J.D. Congdon, and P.C. Rosen. 1981. Nesting frequency and success: implications for the demography of painted turtles. Ecology 62: 1426-1432.
    • Werner, J.K., B.A. Maxell, P. Hendricks and D.L. Flath. 2004. Amphibians and Reptiles of Montana. Mountain Press Publishing Company: Missoula, MT. 262 pp.
  • Additional ReferencesLegend:   View Online Publication
    Do you know of a citation we're missing?
    • [DCC] Decker Coal Company. 1998. 1997 Consolidated annual progress report. Decker Coal Company West, North and East Pits. Decker, MT.
    • [EI] Econ Incorporated. 1984. Terrestrial wildlife inventory for the Lame Jones and Ismay coal lease tracts. Econ Incorporated. Helena, MT.
    • [OEA] Olson Elliot and Associates Research. 1985. 1983-1984 Wildlife monitoring report for the CX Ranch project. Olson Elliot and Associates Research. Helena, MT.
    • [PRESI] Powder River Eagle Studies Incorporated. 1998a. Big Sky Mine 1997 wildlife monitoring studies. Powder River Eagle Studies Incorporated. Gillete, WY.
    • [PRESI] Powder River Eagle Studies Incorporated. 1998b. Spring Creek Mine 1997 wildlife monitoring studies. Powder River Eagle Studies Incorporated. Gillete, WY.
    • [VTNWI] VTN Wyoming Incorporated. No Date. Second year's analysis of terrestrial wildlife on proposed mine access and railroad routes in southern Montana and northern Wyoming, March 1979 - February 1980. VTN Wyoming Incorporated. Sheridan, WY. 62 p.
    • [WESCO] Western Ecological Services Company. 1983a. Wildlife inventory of the Knowlton known recoverable coal resource area, Montana. Western Ecological Services Company, Novato, CA. 107 p.
    • [WESCO] Western Ecological Services Company. 1983b. Wildlife inventory of the Southwest Circle known recoverable coal resource area, Montana. Western Ecological Services Company, Novato, CA. 131 p.
    • [WESTECH] Western Technology and Engineering Incorporated. 1998. Wildlife Monitoring Absaloka Mine Area 1997. Western Technology and Engineering, Inc., Helena, Mt.
    • [WWPC] Washington Water Power Company. 1995. 1994 wildlife report Noxon Rapids and Cabinet Gorge Reservoirs. Washington Water Power Company. Spokane, WA.
    • Ackerman, R.A., R.C. Seagrave, R. Dmi’el, and A. Ar. 1985. Water and heat exchange between parchment-shelled reptile eggs and their surroundings. Copeia 1985(3): 703-711.
    • Almeida, V.M.F., L.T. Buck, and P.W. Hochachka. 1994. Substrate and acute temperature effects on turtle heart and liver mitochondria. American Journal of Physiology 266(3 PART 2): R858-R862.
    • Anderson, C. W. and J. Keifer. 1996. Extraretinal photoreceptors in the caudal mesencephalon of the turtle, Chrysemys picta. American Zoology 36(5): 74A.
    • Anderson, M.E. 1977. Aspects of the ecology of two sympatric species of Thamnophis and heavy metal accumulation with the species. M.S. thesis, University of Montana, Missoula. 147 pp.
    • Anderson, P.K. 1958. The photic responses and water-approach behavior of hatchling turtles. Copeia 1958: 211-215.
    • Andrews, K.D. 1996. An endochondral rather than a dermal origin for scleral ossicles in cryptodiran turtles. Journal of Herpetology 30(2): 257-260.
    • Ashe, V.M., D. Chiszar, and H.M. Smith. 1975. Behavior of aquatic and terrestrial turtles on a visual cliff. Chelonia 2(4): 3-7.
    • Atkinson, E.C. and M.L. Atkinson. 2004. Amphibian and reptile survey of the Ashland and Sioux of the Custer National Forest with special emphasis on the Three-Mile Stewardship Area:2002. Marmot's Edge Conservation. 22 p.
    • Attaway, M.B., G.C. Packard, and M.J. Packard. 1996. Hatchling painted turtles survive only brief freezing of body fluids. American Zoology 36(5): 34A.
    • Babcock, H.L. 1933. The eastern limit of range for Chrysemys picta marginata. Copeia 1933(2): 101.
    • Baker, M.R. 1979. Serpinema/ spp. (Nematoda: camallanidae) from turtles of North America and Europe. Canadian Journal of Zoology 57(4): 934-939.
    • Balcombe, J.P., and L.E. Licht. 1986. Some aspects of the ecology of the midland painted turtle, Chrysemys picta marginata, in Wye Marsh, Ontario (Canada). Canadian Field Naturalist 9(3): 98-100.
    • Baldwin, E.A., M.N. Marchand, and J.A. Litvaitis. 2004. Terrestrial habitat use by nesting painted turtles in landscapes with different levels of fragmentation. Northeastern Naturalist 11(1): 41-48.
    • Barone, M.C. and F.A. Jacques. 1975. The effects of induced cold torpor and time of year on blood coagulation in Pseudemys scripta elegans and. Chrysemys picta belli. Comparative Biochemistry Physiology A 50(4): 717-721.
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Painted Turtle — Chrysemys picta.  Montana Field Guide.  .  Retrieved on , from